Essay: Representations Of Reality: Comparing Photographs To Traditional Artistry Editorial Content • Long-Form Writing • Photography Theory • Art Criticism • 2021 Photography is a combination of both science and art. The public may be unaware that the process of photography is scientific in nature. Whereas a painter needs to use paint, brushes, canvas and physically combine them, photography requires meticulous levels of chemicals and chemical reactions to achieve an image. Artists who use oil paintings utilize various forms of brushes, pick from a variety of canvases, mix paints with paint thinners, and physically combine them to achieve their masterpiece; on the other hand, photographers require meticulous levels of chemicals and have to use a darkroom for specific chemical reactions to occur. Only then is a masterpiece created. That aspect has ensured that photography is seen as much closer to reality than traditional art. Photography is not as precise as other scientific fields. On the other side of the scale, photography is an art because it has variations within a single image. Photographers from the same genre of work will have their own style, even if they are taking a photo of the same subject. Within the hands of a single photographer and camera, the composition, lighting, subject, and positioning will change from image to image. Those are the operator’s choices, which are completely subjective for the image. That subjectivity is what makes photography an artistic medium as well as a scientific one. Photography is a juxtaposition of an imperfect science with the abstraction of art, lending a more objective lens to the unfoldment of the human condition. Critics in the art and photography worlds argue over where photography lies in the art and science spectrum; Holmes describes photography as both as a technical advancement and as an artistic medium. However, Holmes and other artists disagree that photography is the same as its traditional and earlier counterparts in the artistic world. As Holmes describes, the daguerreotype, the daguerreotype, or an early photography process that used mercury vapour to bring forth an image from its silver plating, can appear, can appear like a mirror and remain like a memory forever on a photograph. Photography is a more exact representation of the world around us, as compared to that of a painting or a sketch. A photographic image is impossible for a human hand to reproduce simply because of the level of separation that the artist has from the subject, and not the artist’s skill itself. Film critic, Andre Bazin agrees with Holmes’s sentiment on the exactness of photography as compared to artistry, which is argued by Bazin to be synonymous with copies, or duplication, or imitation. Art is not the object itself, nor can it ever be but it’s not even a direct or exact replica of the original. Photography, on the other hand, isn’t a mere representation but instead a mirror image of the subject. ‘Vulgar’ is the term that Holmes uses to describe photography and, more specifically, stereoscopic pictures as “vulgar repetitions of vulgar models, shamming grace, gentility, and emotion, by the aid of costumes, attitudes, expressions, and accessories worthy only of a Thespian society of candlesnuffers”. Yet, A photograph can capture the small, extensive details that the eye and the hand of an artist are simply unable to. Those details have the potential to ruin the perception of a subject that an artist would be able to capture. Both agree that photography is more exact because of the scientific method used to create the image. Bazin explains that “Originality in photography as distinct from originality in painting lies in the essentially objective character of photography.” One example that shows the difference between traditional art and photography is the genre of war depictions. Wars have been recorded in all forms of genres, from textiles of ancient Greece depicting the mythic Trojan war to photographs of the Second World War. If these works are used for record-keeping and accountability, accuracy is important. Artistic representations of war are just that – representations. Traditional arts are merely imitations of the real world. They are filtered through the mind of the artist; meaning, that the artist’s sensibilities, opinions, and biases are put into the artwork regardless of intention. If an artist is squeamish about blood and gore, they may intentionally or otherwise limit the content of gore that they insert into their work. On the other hand, photographs take an exact picture of what’s in front of the lens. Bazin explains that “The photographic image is the object itself, the object freed from the conditions of time and space that govern it… by virtue of the very process of it becoming, the being of the model of which it is the reproduction; it is the model.” As an example, the Crimean war was one of the first wars that employed the use of photography while still using the work of traditional artists. Roger Fenton, a photographer, and Franz Rouband, a panoramic painter, both gave their depictions of areas of the war. Franz Rouband created the panorama painting called The Siege of Sevastopol in 1904. Painting, regardless of its historical accuracy, doesn’t allow for the instantaneous image of photography that gives a moment in time. To compare, Fenton took photographs of the settings of the war, as well as the individuals within the war. Fenton’s photographs allowed there to be a specific moment captured in a single image with all the details as exact as they were in that moment. Regardless of the apparent differences between photography and traditional art, depictions of war are a good example to exemplify and contrast claims of photographic precision. In expanding upon Bazin’s work, Hansel Chew mentions, “No matter how skillful the painter, his work was always in fee to an inescapable subjectivity. The fact that a human hand intervened cast a shadow of doubt over the image”. Chew brings up an accurate counterpoint when discussing Bazin’s work; even photographs aren’t exact because they are a form of artistic expression which is never as particular as reality. Even in photography, there is a bit of doubt because there is a human element to the work. It’s less than that of photography, but there is still a subjective element to this that can’t be ignored. Elements such as blur, motion, lighting, and even the subject matter is all human choice. Thus, influences by the photographer himself. Photos are more precise than paintings but aren’t as precise as the subjects they are photographing; they are still a kind of copy or imagination of life. Earlier, Holmes was quoted to describe photography as “vulgar” and “by the aid of costumes, attitudes, expressions, and accessories worthy only of a Thespian society of candlesnuffers”.This leads to the idea of photography being more exact than artistry but not as exact as reality itself. There are several examples where photographs are not able to show the whole truth, as they are easy to stage before exposure and manipulate afterward. Fenton’s work is a great example of this. At the time, photography wasn’t able to capture an image of movement. The subjects would need to sit still as if they were the subject for a portrait painting. Even without discussing the intention behind it or how the depth pre-production manipulation was, it still required a kind of specific composition. Another example of this staging and manipulation is a photo from 2003 during the beginning of the Iraq War. Brian Walski is a veteran photographer for the Los Angeles Times and submitted a photograph to the Los Angeles Times. This image depicts a British soldier warning Iraq civilians to take cover from the nearby fire. Frank Van Riper, a writer for the Washington Post describes it as a photograph that could win a Pulitzer. It’s not a surprise that it ran in several other newspapers such as the Chicago Tribune and the Hartford Courant. In reality, the image Walski presented wasn’t what it seemed, as it was a composite image of two photos to improve the composition. He takes two separate images and combines them to make the image appear more interesting and thought-provoking. Even without the manipulation, this photograph shows the staging that occurs in pre-production, even if unintentionally and in a journalistic nature. The aspects of photography that aren’t chemical reactions are choices made by the camera operator. Walski chose that photo to submit, with those specific angles, positions, lighting, and so on. It was a choice that adds to the subjectivity of the image. Beyond that, there’s the element of post-production manipulation. At its very base, it encourages a lack of trust in the truth of photographs and their apparent information. The lack of trust branches out not only to the specific journalist but to photojournalism in general. When confronted, Walski confessed, admitting that he had tarnished the reputation of the Los Angeles Times, as well as fellow photojournalists. Van Riper comments that credibility is vital, and manipulation negatively affects it, “the key elements of a news photograph, like the keywords in a direct quote, simply are off-limits to manipulation”. Walski was terminated as a result of his choices. People have trust in photography because of its accuracy and details. That accuracy is obviously not always the case. There is a chance that the truth seen through a photograph isn’t the truth actually seen. As Holmes said, photographs are precise, but they aren’t completely realistic, nor are they objective. They are more accurate than traditional art, but they are still not the object itself; it is still a kind of degree of separation from the event or subject. Photography is a range of both an exact representation of reality and artistic representations of reality. It’s that range and versatility that allows it to be an artistic medium. As realistic as photography is compared to traditional artwork, it still can be manipulated. That aspect of it needs to be understood and actively applied by the viewer of the image. Individuals need to use discretion with photographs. Sources Bazin, André, “The Ontology of the Photographic Image.” Trans. Hugh Grey. Film Quarterly 13, no. 4 (1960): 4-9. doi:10.2307/1210183. Carlson, Matt “THE REALITY OF A FAKE IMAGE: News norms, photojournalistic craft, and Brian Walski’s fabricated photograph”, Journalism Practice, 3, no. 2, (February 2009). 125-139. DOI: 10.1080/17512780802681140 Chew, Hansel. “The Realism of André Bazin: A Question of Ontology and Aesthetics in Cinema”. 2014. Holmes, Oliver. “The Stereoscope and the Stereograph.” The Atlantic (June 1859). Van Riper, Frank. “Manipulating Truth, Losing Credibility.” Camera Works. Walski, Brian. Warning: A British soldier manning the Azubayr Bridge orders fleeing Basra residents to hit the dirt as Iraqi forces open fire, March 2003, Photograph, Los Angeles Times cover Read this essay on Creative Dreamer: https://creativedreamers.wordpress.com/2021/01/06/representations-of-reality-comparing-photographs-to-traditional-artistry/

Removing the Gag: Literary Journalism & BDSM | Medium Literary Journalism • Long-Form Writing • Media Criticism • BDSM & Sexuality • 2021 Essay: Removing the Gag to Talk About BDSM; Literary Journalism's Effect on Destigmatizing BDSM Stereotypes Kinky. Exciting. Sensual. Perverted. Secretive. Mentally Ill. Each of these words describes BDSM (bondage-discipline, dominance-submission, and sadism-masochism) and its stereotypes. The community and its members have been stigmatized because of their sexual and atypical nature. In the past decade, BDSM has become more mainstream with accurate and inaccurate media representations. Because of its emergence into the public eye, journalists have taken to exploring and, as a result, demystifying the topic. Compared to traditional journalism, literary journalism is better able to destigmatize BDSM. Its subjective style and personable approach can expand the audience's knowledge and empathy toward the subject. Academic journalism articles on the BDSM community provide an open discussion, thus lessening its stigma and stereotypes. Literary Journalism began as a shift from the normality of typical journalism to follow a style more akin to that of novelists or biographers (Wolfe, 1973; Hartsock, 2002). Tom Wolfe describes it as "like a novel" because it's precisely that, but not exactly a novel (Wolfe, 1973, p. 9). Literary journalism combines a book's stylistic writing and a newspaper article's reporting. The stylistic report allows a literary flair to otherwise bland, straight-to-the-point "hard-knack" journalism. Hartsock explains that one of the results of this new form of journalism was usually a kind of social allegory "with potential meanings beyond the literal in the broadest sense an allegory's meaning. Largely, although not exclusively, that allegory is about embracing an understanding of the social or cultural other" (Hartsock, 2002, p. 22). This other is someone or a group that is separate from the audience. This shows social distance, described as how intimately one interacts with and understands a social group (Akerlof, 1997). It's easier to view a minority with over-generalizations. If there is a significant social and contextual distance, that results in those terms being "more abstract, schematic, and decontextualized terms" (Yang, 2015). This distance creates difficulties in altering inaccurate stereotypes of BDSM, as those with a significant social space tend to "ignore individual differences and, as a result, make it difficult, if not impossible, to illustrate the existence of subgroups that behave differently from the majority of the population" (Akerlof, 1997). Literary journalism provides a sympathetic connection between the subject and the reader that works to lessen this social distance. Media can offer representations that reinforce and maintain stereotypes, or counter-stereotypes that challenge and alter existing views (Yang, 2015). Having the BDSM group as part of a vastly distant "other" merely reinforces the stereotypes and limits sympathy for them as the other, thus further reducing individuals' motivation to seek out accurate information on them (Yang, 2015). This lack of contact between the viewer and the stereotyped minority limits the chance for people to change their stereotypical views and gain an accurate representation of the minority. By portraying minorities in a counter-stereotype framework, the authors provide a new context. Regarding literary journalism, the 'other' is given additional context with each article that shifts how they're viewed. The BDSM community allows people to explore sexuality, sexual identity, and sexual inclination in a comfortable and safe environment (Brown, 2010). A specific description of the community is complex because each fetish is diverse and individual. "If one is fascinated with dressing like a panda bear and rolling around in public to be petted, that person can find a place in the BDSM community" (Brown, 2010, p. 7). This group is not a tiny minority. One study shows that as far back as 1953, people were interested in BDSM (Kinsey 1998). Men (50%) and women (55%) reported responding erotically to being bitten, as well as men (22%) and women (12%) said they had an erotic response to a sadomasochistic story (Kinsey, 1998). In the 2005 Durex Global Sex Survey, 33% of Canadian adults have had sex using masks, blindfolds, or other forms of bondage (p. 15). Human sexuality expert Dr. Lehmiller published a study over two years that found 47% of women and nearly 60% of men interviewed fantasized about being sexually dominant (2018). Despite these numbers, stereotyping, stigmatization, and discrimination persist (Richters et al., 2008; Wismeijer & van Assen, 2013). Stereotypes cause the entire community to be seen as dangerous, sick, and immoral. One of the most prevalent stereotypes is that BDSM is harmful, abusive, sexual, or otherwise. In reality, the one overarching rule in the community is "safe, sane and consensual" (Zambelli, 2013). Typical and proper BDSM relationships are thoroughly negotiated. Safety, sanity, and consent are constantly present. As Sarah Beall, the Madam Curator at Make Love Not Porn, explains in an interview, "In order to have a truly safe, consensual, and sexually satisfying kinky sex life, they have to learn to communicate more than the average bear" (Rinzler, 2015, para. 6). As in every community, however, some outliers don’t adhere to the rules and cross the fine line into abuse. As a result, they give the rest of the community a bad name. In an interview with BBC's Soraya Auer, a sex blogger, podcaster and author, Girl on the Net explains that "BDSM is to abuse what boxing is to being punched by surprise. The former is done with consent and an understanding of risks. The latter isn't and is assault" (2018). Another prominent stereotype is the assumption that they have something psychologically wrong with them, anxiety, PTSD, depression, or a history of abuse. This stereotype has been perpetuated by the psychoanalysis and psychopathologizing of psychologists like Richard von Krafft-Ebing and Sigmund Freud (Brown, 2010). Krafft-Ebing discussed the types of "perversions" to diagnose "sexual degenerates" in his novel Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). Freud continued the psychoanalysis of "sexual deviants" and renamed all sexual deviation under sadomasochism (1906). They had a tremendous effect on BDSM and the stereotypes of deviancy and perversion. Later those psychoanalysts affected how the medical world sees BDSM. The DSM5 considered sadism and masochism, along with other BDSM kinks, as a disorder under the definition of paraphilia (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Thus, it furthers the mentally ill or unfit stereotype. This diagnosis has been misused to persecute and prosecute sexual minorities and BDSM subcultures (Brown, 2010; Moser & Shindel, 2010; Reiersøl & Skeid, 2006). As of 2015, adults consenting to atypical sexual behaviour are no longer considered mentally ill under paraphilia (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). This has changed because of the massive effort of the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom (NCSF), a sexual advocacy group. However, there isn't any defence or legal protection for those who engage in BDSM from being outed and having that used against them in court or for blackmail (Mincer, 2018). Being in the BDSM community comes with risks within the courtroom in cases of consent, assault, child custody, domestic violence, property rental, job termination, and employment discrimination (Brown, 2010; Moser & Shindel, 2010; Reiersøl & Skeid, 2006). Those psychological illness stereotypes are not accurate. A study from the Journal of Sexual Medicine found that the results were more favourable for BDSM practitioners compared to the control group in terms of neuroses, rejection sensitivity, extraversion, open-mindedness, conscientiousness, and subjective well-being, yet were less favourable in terms of being less agreeable (Wismeijer & van Assen, 2013). Studies tend to agree that BDSM is simply a sexual preference or interest, a subculture for sexual exploration and not an unhealthy practice resulting from a mental illness or abuse or difficulties with 'normal sex' (Richters et al., 2008; Wismeijer & van Assen, 2013; National Coalition for Sexual Freedom, 1999). Regardless, these stereotypes persist. Although these are difficult to overcome, there has been increasing awareness of BDSM within media such as advertisements, billboards, film, television, and news. It's been diversified and prominent throughout media and is "no longer confined to Haute fashion or the occasional reference; SM has saturated popular culture" (Weiss 2006, p. 108). The film 50 Shades of Grey is one recent and well-known example. Although it wasn't the first, BDSM appeared in films as early as the early 20th century. Regardless, 50 Shades of Grey helped bring BDSM to mainstream media arguably more than others that came before because it went viral. These media representations of BDSM are no longer just sexualized, shocking, exotic, and thrilling depictions but showcase the kink community in more of a mundane context. Within television programs, "viewers are offered not only sexy and scandalized depictions on late-night cable television shows, docudramas, or prime time crime dramas, but also friendly and upbeat depictions on prime-time situation comedies, soap operas, and home and garden shows" (Weiss, 2006, p. 109). Within the community, it's debated whether these film and television representations are more beneficial or harmful. There hasn't been a clear shift in terms of stereotyping. Instead, it is simultaneously a mixture of "mocking and sincere, normalizing and pathologizing" (Weiss 2006, p. 121). On the one hand, these portrayals of BDSM bring them into the public conversation, allowing them to be more normalized. As BDSM is represented more and within more contexts than before, "it has also come to signify something more mainstream and more conventional, something less exceptional, extreme, or unusual" (Weiss 2006, p. 111). Simply, it makes the topic more mundane and thus comfortable to discuss. On the other hand, it's not as beneficial as it could be. More representations of BDSM in media are not necessarily progressing, as there's no straightforward way to determine the correlation between increased visibility and acceptance. Many media examples are inaccurate portrayals of healthy BDSM relationships, further reinforcing the existing stereotypes. The community is often inaccurately portrayed as it only receives attention in limited quantity, where it's often shown negatively and commonly limited to crime drama (Brown, 2010). For example, 50 Shades of Grey received backlash from the BDSM community for its inaccuracy more than any other film (arguably because of its popularity and not its comparable inaccuracy). In an article by Anna Smith, Jon Blue, a BDSM practitioner, was quoted as saying, "Christian is manipulative, controlling, and has all the characteristics of a psychopath. In the end, he proved his point by beating her up, then being charming again" (2015). E. L. James' novel may be significant as erotica, but it's an inaccurate and unhealthy BDSM relationship. Although it gives an incorrect and poor description of consent and a negative exploration of feminism, it offers discussion openings (Moen, 2015). BDSM in the mainstream media allows people to look at it without being considered taboo. Those stereotypes can be rewritten with an open discussion to show accurate representations. Literary journalism is at the personal level, one that immerses the audience in highlighting the "importance of honouring and valuing sexual subcultures, seeking research funding and community support systems, and fighting for the political necessity of diverse forms of sexual expression" (Fahs, 2009, p. 422). The subjectivity of literary journalism takes the heart of the story and makes it relatable instead of an article that states what's happening. Katie Van Syckle's "A Crash Course in Kink" introduces the kink community in a first-person personal feature (2018). She puts her writing in the framework of exploration and curiosity instead of accusing or pathologizing. The BDSM community's most prevalent stereotype is that of danger and abuse. Articles outlining the "safe, sane, and consensual" motto counteract that stereotype. Valeriya Safronova and Syckle authored another piece for the New York Times called "The Boundary Between Abuse and BDSM." This article outlines the fine line between BDSM and abuse while contrasting BDSM practices to sexual assault allegations (2018). Soraya Auer, a BBC journalist, continues this sentiment and discusses consent with sex experts and prominent community members, such as sex coaches, bloggers, researchers, and business owners (2018). This is an important topic as there have been several sexual assault allegations against people, such as Eric Schneiderman and Jian Ghomeshi, who try to excuse their behaviour as a part of a BDSM relationship (Mayer & Farrow, 2018; Stryker, 2014). Whether these allegations are true, these examples negatively impact BDSM as they reinforce the stereotype of BDSM being a cover for abuse. As well, it highlights the difference between BDSM and abuse. Several articles, like Safronova, Syckle, and Auer, argue that the fine line is consent. Literary and journalistic articles allow a better sense of understanding of the world of BDSM. Tina Horn has authored several articles highlighting the community, such as "Why Are People into That?!" a current column podcast written for the establishment, covering a range of specific kinks (2016). A seemingly endless list of kinks and fetishes exists, adapted to the individual(s) engaging in them. James Nichols, a writer for Huffington Post, explores one such kink; puppy play (2016). This form of kink is often a subcategory of a power dynamic where one roleplays the pet or puppy mentality while the other takes on the role of owner. From there, the rest is up to the people within the relationship, leading to a lot of subjectivity and variety. Puppy play is one example of a subculture within the BDSM community based around pet play and was formed from the leather scene (Nichols, 2016). The leather scene is another subculture and kink that focuses on leather. Matt Baume, a Rolling Stone writer, discusses the leather scene as "thought to have grown out of the post-World War II biker scene, which tended to be dominated by uniforms, buzz cuts, and military honour codes. It was an aesthetic that resonated with gay men who couldn't identify with the more effete stereotypes of the time" (2017). Horn, Nichols, and Baume are just a few examples. Articles focusing on specific interests show that the community's preferences are as diverse as the individuals'. Literary journalism articles destigmatize even more by writing features that focus on specific individuals. In part, the readership gets to know the people personally, thus limiting the social distance and the stereotyped view of them. Amanda Duberman writes about Mistress Velvet, a professional dominatrix who requires clients to read black feminist theory to emphasize the power dynamic between men and women, specifically, submissive white men and dominant black women (2018). Tina Horn has interviewed and featured many members of the BDSM community, including actor James Franco and Christina Voros, the producer and director of Kink, a documentary about the fetish pornography website Kink.com (2014). Jamie Feldman visually outlines the lives of BDSM practitioners by comparing them in and out of their kink attire (2018). These photos weren't merely about the depth of human sexuality but of self-expression. The photographer, Michael Topolovac, explained, "There was a common thread of, 'Hey, this is us. We're complicated. We're diverse. We're expressive'" (Feldman, 2018). A counter-stereotype reduces stigmatization and counters the stereotype by providing broader context (Yang, 2015). These articles highlight people within BDSM and show they're social advocates, directors, documentarians, actors, producers, writers, and photographers. Stereotypes of the BDSM community are incorrect, resistant, and commonly shared within the majority. Destigmatization is essential regardless of the group, as it demystifies aspects of the human condition and allows people within BDSM to be accessible without fear of stigmatization or discrimination. The connection between BDSM subjects and the audience limits social distance and lessens inaccurate stereotypes. 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The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10(8), pp.1943–1952. Wolfe, T., & Johnson, E. W. (1973). The new journalism: With an anthology edited by Tom Wolfe and E.W. Johnson. New York: Harper & Row. Yang, A. (2015). Building a Cognitive-Sociological Model of Stereotypes: Stereotypical Frames, Social Distance and Framing Effects. Howard Journal of Communications, 26(3), 254–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2015.1049757 Zambelli, L. (2013). Safe, sane and consensual. Contemporary perspectives on sadomasochism, Psychology & Sexuality, 6:2, 212–215, DOI: 10.1080/19419899.2014.948038

Essay: From Anselm to Aquinas: Philosophical From Anselm to Aquinas | Philosophical Arguments on Christian Theism Philosophy • Christian Theology • Philosophy of Religion • Argumentative Writing • 2020 Schrödinger's Cat, a thought experiment, is an example of questioning our knowledge of something without validation. For this experiment, the physicist Erwin Schrödinger pictures a box containing a radioactive particle detection device, a living cat, and a container of poison. Without lifting the lid to observe the Cat, one cannot know if it is dead or alive (Schrödinger, 1935). Thus, a paradox is presented that the Cat is alive and dead, as both are equally true and false until it is validated. Consider the idea that philosophers have God within a box, discussing whether God is in the box or not. It is plausible that God is in the box and not in the box simultaneously. The idea of God, Christian Theism, or the belief in the Christian God is interesting and quite debated by philosophers even today. Unfortunately, philosophers cannot merely look into the heavens like the box to see if God exists. Unlike Schrödinger, nobody is sure what is in the box, if any one thing or really anything at all . While everyone is discussing the existence of God, few stop to consider essentially what God is. As arguments of Aquinas's arguments and my argument suggest, there is proof of something that humans don't necessarily understand and have, for centuries, called God, which, despite all of the arguments for the evidence of God's existence, it is not necessarily a divine being. Arguments using a definition of divinity appear unstable as the definition of divinity is vague enough to denote a wide range of possibilities. A religious professor at Boston University, Stephen Prothero, agrees, "Today it is widely accepted that there is no one essence that all religions share" (2010). Christianity, Judaism, Baha'i, and Religious Satanism are monotheistic, while Greek and Roman religions, Wicca and Maya, have multiple deities. Pantheistic religions consist of God as a part of the whole of everything, such as voodoo and Taoism. There are religions without any deity, such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Philosophical Satanism. With these differences in specifics, proving God is complex and arguably impossible. As to what God is, there are several different concepts. Firstly, God can be defined as a moral guide seen within religions such as Buddhism, Baha'i, Judaism, Christianity, and Satanism. This creates issues, as morality is often interpreted differently depending on the circumstances and the people involved. As Cockerill discusses in the article Definition of God, "the supreme ethical authority of the prophets was not God, but the opinion held by each as to what course of conduct was best for his followers and the human race" (1905). It's also an issue, as different religions provide different moral guides. Prothero writes that even the essence of religion and its central moral teachings aren't similar (2010). He simplifies the main issues within the eight major religions: Islam, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Yoruba, Judaism, and Taoism (Prothero, 2010). Prothero states they are similar in the concept that there are issues that the religion seeks to solve with their teachings (2010). Problems may overlap, such as within Taoism's way of flourishing and Buddhism's way of awakening, but where Taoism wants to solve lifelessness, Buddhism wants to solve suffering (Prothero, 2010). It is also arguable that a divine does or does not have any moral authority, as reasoned by Plato's Euthyphro. It claims that God's whim chooses morality or is not within God's control. To explain this further, if God says murder is wrong because it is morally wrong, then morality is not God's design. Thus, there is a force higher than God. If God designs morality, then anything could be morally wrong or right based on his word alone. Although several philosophers take up this argument and create variations, including Rene Descartes, Kurt Gödel, Mulla Sadra, and Gottfried Leibniz, the original is provided by Anselm. Anselm's ontological argument begins by defining God as a being in which nothing more significant can be conceived (Perry, Bratman & Fischer, 2016). The premise that follows claims that this being, or God, is a conceivable idea and exists within the understanding. It is understood that there is a difference between existing as an understanding and existing as a reality. The concept within the imagination is not as good as it would be. The being cannot exist in the understanding alone, for if it exists in the understanding alone, that would contradict the first premise. Therefore, the being than which nothing greater can be conceived must exist in both understanding and reality to be greater than everything else in existence (Perry, Bratman & Fischer, 2016). My main objection to Anselm's argument is the definition of God. He is arguing for the existence of a God that he defines as the being than which none greater is possible. Anselm claims that this is the lord, most likely of the Christian religion, as Anselm was a Christian philosopher and a saint. Yet, there is not any proof provided that this being is Christ. He may have proven that there is a being greater than all of the universe, but there aren't any aspects of the being that attribute to Christ specifically. This being could be another divinity. Anselm may respond that there is proof that the being argued for is indeed Christ. He argued that his idea of divinity is Christ itself, that Christ is the being in which nothing can be greater. The omnipotence and all presence of the Christian divinity are essential to the definition of a being that is greater than all. However, this rebuttal needs to include the point. To say that Christ is the greatest being in the world would require the conclusion of the Christian divine existence to be true. Anselm's only claim in the first premise is that a being can be conceived, which means that anything greater cannot be conceived. Anselm claimed that this being is Christ, but there is no proof. Since Anselm's first premise claims for a being of that which none can be greater, it fundamentally argues for a concept of that kind of being. It doesn't argue that one can conceive of Christ as the only being of which nothing can be greater than. It could be a divinity other than Christ, as the premise is based on infinite greatness, unfortunately not profoundly defined. Greatness doesn't seem to mean the minor aspects of god, such as the promised afterlife, moral teachings, the number of followers, or rewards of devotion. Consider that Anselm's infinite greatness is defined as unlimited power for creation, destruction, interference and so on. In this case, each religion's deity could be said to exist with equal probability. Thus, a being of some sort exists, but there is no definition beyond the ideology that they are great. There is no proof of identity. Some could argue that even this infinite greatness may not take the form of divinity. The most logical argument within the realm of religion is that of Thomas Aquinas. He brings forward the cosmological argument, providing five proofs to prove God's existence. The first three are arguments that avoid an infinite regress. The first is the argument from change, which argues that things change and must be changed by something else. Thus, something is required to start the chain reaction. The second is the argument from efficient causation, which argues that there are cause and effect, and thus an initial cause is required. The third argument is from necessity, which claims that things have the potential to not exist and, therefore, there must be a being that exists out of necessity to exist in a time, even if nothing else exists. These lend themselves to the creation of Earth, Humans, the Universe etc. Aquinas is saying that nothing happens spontaneously. There is always a cause. Thus, what is the cause of the universe's beginning? This is an argument that many religious believers share that divinity created the world as we know it. The fourth is the argument of gradation, stating that every finite thing has degrees of perfection. Thus, there needs to be a maximum perfection example that not only is perfect but causes perfection. The fifth is the argument from design, which is similar to Paley's design argument. It claims the world is so complex and intricate that it could not have been created by chance. Aquinas agrees with Paley that the universe requires a creator. Aquinas provides a sound argument for the existence of God. However, the conclusion that it is indeed God isn't sound. Even within his findings for each of his arguments, he ends with similar phrases: "and this everyone understands to be God" or "and this we call God" (Perry, Bratman & Fischer, 2016). The thing Aquinas proves to be true may be interpreted as God but isn't necessarily the divine. Like Aquinas's argument, I focus on observable results and question their beginnings, referring to the following argument as the inspiration argument. This considers the enormous amount and diversity of the world's religions. They all agree that there is more to this world than human beings and evolutionary instincts. Beyond that, there are similarities across religions that focus on specific stories, moralities, and ideals. The inspiration argument's first premise is that every culture has spirituality in one way or another. The next premise states that each culture has striking similarities among one another between traditions, stories and teachings. The third premise states that these similarities can be explained by human activity and human similarities. The next premise reveals that each religion's cores and subjective aspects are similar; there is something beyond humans. It expresses that there must be a similar starting point for religions and their traditions based upon the similarities. The conclusion states that for all religions, there needs to be a common starting point at which the story of the religion begins. Although, even this does not denote the existence of God. This argument implies that God may not even inspire the basis of religion and religious faith. One objection is that the second premise, similarities between traditions, stories and teachings, are easily explained by aspects of human history such as colonization, exploration, missionaries, cultural interactions and so on. This continues to the beginning of core ideals as well. Thus, the conclusion may not be as mysterious as it could, as it may merely arise from human cultural activities. There are explanations for the start of religion from a psychological, anthropological, sociological, and evolutionary position. To respond to this objection, various human activities undoubtedly influence religions. There is proof of that very thing. While these are proven and observed phenomena, people are still determining strictly how religious core values began and why they began so similarly. It denotes a subjective inspiration upon which all religions and their stories are based. Humans only see the constant conjunctions of supposed divinity, such as miracles, prophecies, creation, natural laws and so forth. However, the necessary connection or reason they go together is unobservable. Humans presume various explanations without understanding a topic or knowing the explanation behind an action. All of them have a degree of probability until one of them is proven for sure. The concept is the same for God. God is not the only option for the presented arguments. God is only a possibility and, arguably, not the most probable candidate. Citations Cockerill, R. (1905). Definition of God. Monist, 15(4), 637–638. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/monist190515410 Perry, J., Bratman, M., & Fischer, J. (2016). Introduction to Philosophy (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Prothero, S. (2010). God is not one (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. Schrödinger, E. (1935). Die gegenwärtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik. Die Naturwissenschaften, 23(50), 844–849. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01491987

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Learn more about Dylanna Fisher by visiting her online portfolio at dylannafisher.com. About Me. I'm Dylanna Fisher, an authentic and analytical communications specialist with over 8 years of experience in SEO content writing, digital marketing, social media strategy, and customer support. With a background in journalism, marketing, and graphic design, I bring a strategic, creative, and data-driven approach to content creation. My work has been featured in publications, social media campaigns, and brand storytelling projects across Canada. I’ve worked with 40+ clients, delivering SEO-driven content, social media campaigns, and engaging visual storytelling that enhance brand presence and drive measurable results. My experience spans industries including music, education, journalism, marketing, and the nonprofit sector. Download CV Proffessional Experience Volunteer Experience Education Microcredentials Professional Experience Real Estate Newsletter Writer (Contract) | DMS Marketing • Edmonton, AB April 2026 – Present E-Commerce Digital Content Specialist | Amre Supply • Edmonton, AB June 2025 – January 2026 Content Specialist | Homeward Trust Edmonton • Edmonton, AB April 2024 – October 2024 Technical Editor (Contract) | Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT) • Remote August 2022 – May 2023 Social Media Copywriter | ZAG Creative • Edmonton, AB March 2022 – October 2023 Administration & Overnight Respite Worker | Alberta PDD • Westlock, AB November 2021 – July 2023 Local Sports Journalist | Best Version Media Sports • Remote January 2020 – December 2022 Marketing Coordinator | Westlock Memorial Hall • Westlock, AB September 2014 – February 2020 Investigative Reporter | Institute for Inclusive, Investigative & Innovative Journalism (I3J) • Remote, Canada February 2019 – September 2019 Seasonal Sales Associate | Kunitz Shoes • Edmonton, AB August 2018 – December 2018 Narrative Designer | 4th Dimension Labs • Edmonton, AB February 2017 – October 2018 Digital Content Strategist & Editor-in-Chief | Switching Styles • Remote September 2017 – Present Freelance Writer | Various Publications • Remote September 2015 – Present Education Bachelor of Communication (Journalism Major) | MacEwan University • Edmonton, AB December 2019 Data Analytics Certificate | IBM SkillsBuild & University of the People • Remote Graduation Date: July 2027 Volunteer Experience Digital Marketing Volunteer | LaPerle Parent Advisory Association (PAA) • Edmonton, AB September 2024 – February 2026 Local Student Reporter | The Griff, MacEwan University • Edmonton, AB December 2019 – March 2020 Social Media Coordinator & Concession Volunteer | Westlock Country Jamboree • Westlock, AB February 2019 – February 2020 Campus Safety Volunteer | MacEwan Safe Walk • Edmonton, AB September 2016 – September 2017 Microcredentials Data, Analytics & AI Data Analytics Certificate — IBM SkillsBuild & University of the People (2026) Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL) — Gale Courses (2025) Introduction to Artificial Intelligence — Gale Courses (2025) Google Analytics for Beginners — Google Analytics Academy (2021) SEO & Digital Marketing Achieving Top Search Engine Positions (SERPs) — Gale Courses (2025) SEO Foundations — LinkedIn Learning (2024) SEO for Ecommerce — LinkedIn Learning (2019) E-Commerce SEO Optimization Strategies — LinkedIn Learning (2019) Google Business Profile Training — Google (2021) The Bullseye 101: Introduction to Targeted Advertising — Bullseye Branding (2021) Web Development & Technical Skills Python Programming Foundations — Gale Courses (2026) Advanced CSS3 & HTML5 Web Design — Gale Courses (2025) Designing Effective Websites — Gale Courses (2025) Creating Web Pages — Gale Courses (2025) Writing & Communication Fundamentals of Technical Writing — Gale Courses (2025) Writing Clearly for a Business Audience — LinkedIn Learning (2023) Grammar Refresher — Gale Courses (2025) Project Management Project Management Principles — Gale Courses (2026) Professional & Workplace Flexible Thinking Skills — LinkedIn Learning (2023) Respect in the Workplace — NAIT (2023) Specialized Certifications Protect Security Staff Certification — AGLC (2024) TCPS 2: Research Core Essentials — Macewan University (2017) Medication Administration — PDD (2021) Abuse Prevention — PDD (2021) Get in Touch Contact Page dylannafisher@gmail.com